0
This is a simple algebraic equation. To solve for p, you need to isolate the variable (p) on one side of the equation.
Here are the steps to solve the equation:
p + 5 = 9
Subtract 5 from both sides
p = 4
So the value of p that makes the equation true is 4.
E
p=4
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Where was the first us navy jet engine made?
The Bell P59 Airacomet was the first Jet-powered aircraft in our military, and it served the Army Air Forces and the Navy (which was unusual, given their competition with each other). It was powered by two General Electric J31-GE-5 turbojets, which was the first working jet engine produced in the United States. General Electric had four facilities in the US, and the engines were mass-produced in all four. I hope this helped!
What are the moglin punter powers and angles?
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What is the password to jump level 100 in sokoflash?
how to jump to level 84 in sokoflash? the password for level 84 is: clock p1 start p2 easy p3 January p4 train p5 dog p6 horse p7 DVD p8 hockey p9 window p10 flex p11 video p12 css p13 HTML p14 site p15 day p16 event p17 array p18 object p19 variable p20 number p21 string p22 new p23 fusion p24 cold p25 director p26 php p27 base p28 mx p29 java p30 flash p31 cat p32 Elvis p33 instance p34 tool p35 if p36 test p37 you p38 member p39 now p40 great p41 this p42 tip p43 heavy p44 girl p45 love p46 cow p47 world p48 small p49 car p50 bird p51 heat p52 foot p53 me p54 long p55 boy p56 now p57 bed p58 bear p59 beer p60 secret p61 sex p62 city p63 tutorial p64 simple p65 rest p66 software p67 she p68 they p69 remote p70 control p71 game p72 ball p73 desktop p74 photo p75 mickey p76 mouse p77 tigger p78 pooh p79 piglet p80 donalt p81 goofy p82 file p83 fish p84 clock p85 time p86 day p87 night p88 head p89 mouse p90 mickey p91 month p92 computer p93 movie p94 clip p95 Lego p96 taxi p97 blue p98 banana p99 orange p100 last
What are the examples of deviant behavior?
Deviant behavioursThere is set of social features ,which provided to man to regulate his behavior according to that set of norms and values. Some of them in society fail to conform to these norms. Failure to conform to the traditional norms of the society is deviant behavior .According to Parsons ,there are two types of deviant behavior.A- firstly, he defines ,it as "motivated tendency for an actor to behave in a contravention of one or more institutionalized normative pattern."B- Secondly he defines it as "the tendency on the part of one or more of the component actors to behave in such a way to disturb the equilibrium .of interactive process,"Various violence ,crimes and oppositions are examples of deviant behavior. This deviant behavior brings tensions, disorganization ,conflicts and presents new challenges in social system.Deviant behavior is term of comparative condition. In all societies it occurred in some extent. There is no society which is free from any deviant behavior. The meaning of normative system is changing according to need of society. There was time when disobeying the rules of caste was considered as deviant behavior, but now in age of equalization norms of caste are valueless .In short purposely violation of any law which exist in valuable place in society, called deviant behavior.Crime and violence are clear and transparent examples of deviant behavior. In present plural society , the role of religion ,community ,caste, language, are important and any opposite or contradictory action against these also comes in category of deviant behavior. The Reason behind it is a democratic system ,where all faiths and religions are well respected.Throughout history, the most important aspects of the democratic way of life have been the principles of individual equality and freedom. Accordingly, citizens in a democracy should be entitled to equal protection of their persons, possessions, and rights; have equal opportunity to pursue their lives and careers; and have equal rights of political participation. In addition, the people should enjoy freedom from undue interference and domination by government. They should be free, within the framework of the law, to believe, behave, and express themselves as they wish. Democratic societies seek to guarantee their citizens certain freedoms, including freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of speech. Ideally, citizens should also be guaranteed freedom of association and of assembly, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, and the freedom to work and live where and how they choose.Five-year plan is a programme to increase the economic and social development of a country over a five-year period. Many countries have had such plans drawn up by their governments. Examples include China and India. The plan details how much the government intends to spend on the various parts of the economy, particularly in those areas that will help the country to industrialize and develop. For example, a plan may include ideas for new roads, railways, airports, and seaports and for spending on such items as schools, universities, and hospitals. Individual countries' plans vary in scope and detail. Many are flexible and will be adjusted during the five-year period to reflect changes in international economic conditions.On considering this much arrangement ,still disputes and contraventions are resting in brains of people of various communities.A dispute or Contestation does not mean any necessary conflict. This situation has some possibility to reach at some agreement. With the organized systemically efforts to eradicate the dispute ,they want to show their unity and strength through processions ,this is called Contestation situation.Variou form of Contestation-1-Religious Contestation-Every where we observe diddrent faith and religions . In Europe Protestant and Catholic religions and their Contestation are common between two. Same way Gulf countries have Shiya and Sunni disputes. In India there are all types of religions .The history says Babri Masjid is built on Ram temple and Hindu and Muslims fight for this.India is declared as secular country but the ratio of extremists is increasing day by day.2-Racial Contestation- Racism is the belief that human beings can be divided into races and that members of some races are inferior to members of other races. Usually, this attitude also involves the belief that one's own race is superior to other races. People who believe in or practise racism are called racists. They claim that members of their own race are mentally, physically, morally, or culturally superior to those of other races. Because racists assume they are superior, they believe they deserve special rights and privileges.Racism is widespread and has caused major problems, even though no scientific proof supports racist claims. Claims of racial superiority and inferiority have been used to justify discrimination,3-caste conflict- India's caste system has rarely matched the one outlined above. Through the centuries, however, the actual system became increasingly rigid and elaborate. Many attempts have been made to eliminate the system, but all have failed. India's 1950 constitution outlaws untouchability and grants equal status to all peoples. But laws and modern urban life have weakened the system only somewhat. Caste prejudice remains an important factor interfering with India's social integration and economic progress.4-Regional tension- The concept of regionalism is also reason of Contestation. At political level it works to hold maximum seats in administration. For this feature the party system has been the rise of several regional parties that are powerful in the particular states to which they belong. The popularity of these parties is largely due to the fact that they appeal to regional (cultural or linguistic) sentiments. In short they excite the opponents to form such other regional parties.5-Linguistic Contestation- In a linguistic sense, the term language is refers to those areas where most people speak that as their native language. For example Arabs have their language Arabic. This linguistic definition differs from the political one because some Arab countries include large areas populated by non-Arabs, and some non-Arab countries have significant Arab minorities. In India there are always conflictive arguments on northern and southern languages .Tamil, Telgu, Assam have shown Linguistic Contestation at various times.CrimeCrime is a term that refers to misconduct forbidden by law. Murder, called homicide--is a crime in all countries. Other crimes include stealing a car, resisting arrest, possessing or selling illegal drugs, appearing nude on a public street, driving while under the influence of alcohol, and robbing a bank.The list of acts considered crimes is constantly changing. For example, people are now no longer charged with witchcraft, though many were accused of that crime during the 1600's and 1700's. Today, it is becoming a serious crime to pollute the air and water. Pollution caused few problems and received little attention in pre industrial times.From a legal standpoint, a crime is a violation of the criminal law. Such law deals with actions considered harmful to society. On the other hand, most harmful acts causing injury to another person are violations of the civil law. Some overlapping occurs in this classification. For example, murder and rape are committed against individuals, but the law considers them crimes because they threaten society. For this reason, a crime is regarded as an offence against the state.An act is viewed as a crime if enough evidence exists to make a police officer, a prosecutor, or a judge believe that a violation of criminal law has taken place. However, the law does not consider accused people to be criminals unless a judge or jury finds them guilty. A criminal may be imprisoned or receive some other punishment, according to the laws of the community in which the crime was committed or the trial was held.A person who commits any crime is called a criminal. But the term is sometimes used only for a person who commits such a serious crime as murder or robbery. At other times, the term refers only to habitual criminals.The study of criminal behavior is called criminology, and experts in this field are called criminologists. Criminologists study crime and criminals for various reasons. They may try to determine where, when, and why different types of crime occur. Criminologists also seek the relationships between criminals and the victims, as well as the most effective ways to prevent crime.Definition and Features of Crime-1. "A crime is any act which the group regards as sufficiently menacing to warrant a decisive group reaction to condemn and restrain the offender of such act"( Barnes & Teeters, New horizons in criminology.)2. According to Elliot and Merrill ,"Crime may be defined as anti-social behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties. (Social Disorgnization,pp.542-543)3. R.Garofelo accordingly" A violation of prevalent sentiments of pity and probity."(Criminology ,p59)4. In words of Caldwell, "Crime is the violation of set of values acceptable to organized society at a certain time and in a given place." (Criminology.p.4)5. In words of Redcliff Brown, "A violation of usage which gives rise to the exercise of penal sanction."(Quoted by Sutherland ,Principles of Criminology ,p15)6. Haikerwal "From the social point of view crime implies such behavior of the individual as interferes with the order of human relationships which society regards as primary condition of its existence." ,(Economic and Social Aspects of Crime in India 1927, p27)On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude following features of crime-1- crime is an act treated as anti-social behavior.2- This act is always against the interest of community.3- It is behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties of money and physical imprisonment .4- There should be always involvement of criminal intention.5- The act which harms to man, group or state is counted as crime.6- There is difference between crime and tort. Disobeying of any religious ritual is called tort , not crime.Classification of Crime and Criminals;Crimes may be classified in various ways. For example, they sometimes are grouped according to the seriousness of the offence. For statistical purposes, many governments divide crimes into offences against people, against property, and against public order or public morality. Some social scientists classify crimes according to the motives of the offenders. Such crimes might include economic crimes, political crimes, and crimes of passion. Other important kinds of crime include organized crime and white-collar crime.Sutherland has divided crime into two parts.A- Misdemeanors or Average crime means robbery ,manhandle, consume alcohol etc. there is no harsh punishment for such acts. Some warnings, slight penalty, or keeping on probation are some forms of punishment for it.B- Felonies or Heinous Crimes-Murder, rape, dacoit, kidnap violence, looting etc are treated as very heinous crimes. The life imprisonment ,death sentence, are various forms of punishing the criminalHayes has given three type of crimes.A-Crime against order like disturbing and looting public place, indecent behavior ,involvement in riots,and disobeying the rules of public authority.B-Crime against Property-like robbery, cheating, smuggling, bankruptcy ,insolvency etc.c-Crime against individual - murder ,rape ,attach, defamation etc.Bonger says there are four types of crimes. They are economic, political. sex and revengeful crimes.Lambreso says there are five important types of criminals-A-criminals by birth-People commit crime due to defective personality of heredity B -psychiatric criminals-who can not distinguished the nature of the things of right and wrong. C-Excited criminals-who excited very fast and getting Excited by others commit crime. D- Casual criminals-Due to some causality they commit crime. E-Habitual criminals, these are known as occupational criminals. Such criminals organized and in planned way they commit crime. Organized crime consists of large-scale activities by groups of gangsters or racketeers. Such groups are often called the crime syndicate or the underworld. Organized crime specializes in providing illegal goods and services. Its activities include gambling, prostitution, the illegal sale of drugs, and loan-sharking (lending money at extremely high rates of interest). Many of these activities are often called victimless crimes because both the buyer and the seller take part in them willingly.Sutherland has described two types of economic crimes namely lower class criminals, who have very low economic and social status and due to lack of education they commit crimes. other category is called White-collar crimes. It originally included only criminal acts committed by business and professional people while earning their living. The term referred to such crimes as stock market swindles and other kinds of fraud. Today, the term covers such acts as cheating in the payment of taxes--which may or may not be done in connection with one's business. It may apply to petty thefts by employees, as well as to large-scale stock market swindles. It could also include a garage owner's charging for a car repair that was not made, or a dentist's charging a patient for services that were not performed. A bribery and corruption are also such crimes.Problem of crime inIndia-Like other countries India is facing crimes committed through computers. The increasing use of computers has created new opportunities for white-collar crime. Computer crimes are difficult to detect but easy to accomplish once a criminal learns the code or password to activate the system. Thus, automatic bank tellers increase the possibility of fraud or theft from banks. Computer access by bank employees creates additional opportunities for diversification .This is latest type of crime in India.The other crime is of political nature. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political crime has become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aeroplane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists. For example, security at airports, embassies, and other potential targets has been increased, and specially trained law enforcement or military units have been formed to combat terrorism.There is difference in nature of criminals of west and east. In western countries mostly crimes committed for economic reason as well as for revengeful mentality. But in India it is not so common. In India Crimes are often divided between acts that most people would consider evil and acts that lawmakers decide should be regulated in the interest of the community. The first group includes such major crimes as arson, assault, burglary, kidnapping, murder, rape, robbery, and theft. The second group of crimes includes violations of income tax laws, liquor licensing regulations, pure food and drug laws, and traffic laws.In India there are other type of common crimes like land related crime and religion related crimes, de to industrialization ,rural population migrated in towns and till they get house ,job or every thing they involve themselves in pity crimes. Smuggling, bribery ,kidnapping, asking money for freeing the person are other crimes in society. The big names of some crimes in India are Hawala Scandal, Bribery of Jharkhand party Scandal, Sukhram Scandal, urea Scandal, Bihar's Chara Ghotala Scandal, Telgi Stamp paper Scandal, Jain charbi Scandal etc. Now a days big bureaucrats and political leaders are involving in sex crimes.Some time back it was understood that only low class people committed crimes but now even big dignitaries are also not trust worthy. Due to Television and materialization children have great lust for money and they are also in habit of stealing things and money. The role of moral ethics are disappearing from society. A domestic violence is a story of every home. The dowry deaths crimes are common in rich families also. The involvement of women in crimes is not rare thing.Factors of crime-Biological factors-. Many studies have sought to explain crime. Most of them compare habitual criminals with people who have not been convicted of crimes to try to find important differences between the two groups.Since the late 1800's, for example, researchers trained in the biological sciences have searched for physical differences. Such studies involve differences in body type, the pattern of brain waves, and the formation of genes. Lambroso and Charles Goring said that due to defective traits of body they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Other sociologists believe that due to heredity of criminals their offspring also do such acts.In compare to old young people inclined more towards acts of crime. Quarreling nature ,tension ,fraustration,etc are some biological factors of crime. Although none of these studies has proved that criminals have any physical traits that make them different from other people.2-Psychological factors-Research by psychiatrists and psychologists stresses personality differences resulting from experiences in childhood or later. This research shows that many people who became criminals were neglected by their parents or were given harsh or uncertain discipline. Such treatment left them insecure and demanding in their relations with others. Their own wants made them ignore the needs or rights of others. But researchers have had difficulty making a direct connection between emotional needs and crime because many people with emotional problems find acceptable ways of solving them.(CD of World book Millennium 2000)3-Economic factors-Due to industrialization and urbanization, the needs of people are at increasing rate. There is limited sources for satisfying unlimited needs. In many countries, most crimes are committed by boys and young men. They are particularly likely to commit burglaries, car thefts, and robberies .Modernization has changed the concept of standard of living which was simple living and high thinking .Now it isconverted in to high living and simple thinking.4-Social factors-For many young city-dwellers, the excitement of the streets provides the principal escape from boredom and seemingly unsolvable problems. These streets are also the scene of much vice and crime--drugs use and sale, gambling, prostitution, public drunkenness, and acts of violence. Law enforcement in the inner city is difficult, partly because too few police officers patrol the neighborhoods. In addition, many of the people fear the police and refuse to cooperate with them. .(CD of World book Millennium 2000)5-Political factors-political leader also train people for committing crimes. They are paid for it. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other party candidates and honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political factors have become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aero plane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists.6-Defective Punishment system -If person is harshly penalized for ordinary acts ,it makes him serious criminal in future. Our legal system too is loosely knitted . On the basis of false evidence any person can be punished by law. Such person does not have faith in laws so they violate the same to punish the others.Schools of Crime-Pre classical school-According to this school any crime is committed due to some involvement of any super natural power. There was limited knowledge of people in old primitive societies. When they did not find any reason of act of violating rules of society they said it is because of some shadow of ghost or super natural spirit. A person himself did not know what type of act he is doing?This theory is not acceptable by others as it is based on imagination of people.Classical theory-Ben-them is supporter of this theory. According to him person's behavior is controlled by feeling of pain and pleasure. When person commit crime the quantity of pleasure is higher than the pain he takes for it. There fore 'Pleasure related Psychology' is main factor of crime.This theory does not believe in existence of super natural power, rather it gives importance to' Free will ' of individual .This is reason why Back-aria has given stress on severe punishment for criminals ,so that the pain of punishment could torture him more, than pleasure of committing crime.Beccaria and his followers protested at the severe punishments that were common for criminals at that time. They argued that the only purpose of punishment should be to prevent future crime. Beccaria assumed that criminals had free will and that pleasure and pain determined their actions. He believed crime could be prevented by the certainty and speed of punishment, rather than its severity. According to Beccaria, everyone who violated a specific law should receive the same punishment, regardless of age, sex, wealth, or social position. In modified form, the principles of the classical school are the basis of criminal law today in many nations.This theory is not acceptable by others as it has over looked the social factor of the same. There are so many psychological factors of harassment, emotional blackmailing ,frustrations etc, which have not given enough attention.Geographical School.-this school believes in geographical factors of crime like geographical condition and climatic conditions . Quetlete says in hot climatic conditions people commit more crimes against person while in cold conditions he commits against property. There are other thinkers like Gery and Durkheim who have opinion of committing crimes in favor of environmental factors. Durkheim says during summer season people commit more suicides.This theory is also criticized by many.because all people live in same geographical conditions do not commit crimes. More over due to technological factors ,people have controlled the geographical conditions also.Economic School-Angles and Karl Marx supports this theory of economic facrors. When economic disparity increases in society ,the ratio of tension also increases in large group of people. For reducing it they involve in crimes.As soon as relations among the means of productions improves ,the ratio of crimes also decreases.This theory is also one sided ,giving more importance to welth than man.Poverty does not encourage all men to commit crimes. Some say weaker section vave more faith in rules and laws.Italian or Typological school. The positive school of criminology, also known as the Italian school, developed during the late 1800's. In general, this school shifted the emphasis of criminology from crime itself to the study of criminals and the possible causes of their actions. The positivists believed criminal behavior resulted from conditions beyond the control of the criminal.An Italian doctor named Cesare Lombroso was the most important leader of the positive school. He studied many criminals and concluded that certain physical traits made them different from other people. His ideas have been proved false, but his scientific approach to crime laid the basis for modern criminology.Lambroso , Gerri fellow and Charles Goring said that due to defective physical traits of body or physically challenged / handicap ness lead them towards crime. Due to this they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Gerri fellow gives more importance to mental traits than physical. He said if person does not have mercy and honesty in his character from birth ,he never hesitate to commit crimes.This is also unscientific theory .By birth no one is criminal, it is socio cultural circumstances which compelled him towards crimes. If birth is responsible for crimes than there is no hope for any improvement in his behavior and no reformatory program can be effective for them. Although through reformatory programs he can be once again molded in shape of sound citizen.Psychoanalytical school-The supporters of this theory are Sigmund Friaud ,Edler and Henery Godard .according to them due to suppressed feelings of person , he commits crime. There are so many achievements and failures in life. When he faces failures of life he feels emotionally tensed. Sometimes due to this tension, he feels insecure and frustrated .To get rid from all such negativity he commit crime. The low standard of intelligence is also inclined him to commit crime.But critics say it is not necessary that all people of low intelligence commit crimes.In every society all type of people reside,this does not mean that peole of low level of intelligence are criminals. More ever there are so many other sociological factors which are responsible for such acts.Sociological School. According to Sutherland crime is also learned behavior of man. Anti social contacts make him criminal. How person can become criminal ,it depends on four situations .A-Age B-Repetitions C- Duration D- speedy contact . These four things can be analyzed with the help of an example. The person who in younger age comes in contact of criminals,(Age) and he sees them again and again (Repetition) and live together for long duration (Duration) and he maintains such friendship and imitate their behavior, such person has all qualities of criminal. There fore the seed of crimes are exist in structure of society.During the 1900's, criminologists have proposed a wide variety of theories about crime. Edwin H. Sutherland, an American criminologist, developed the theory of differential association. It states that all criminal behavior is learned through association with criminals or people with unfavorable attitudes toward the law. Other criminologists believe the structure of society leads some people to choose criminal methods to achieve such socially approved goals as wealth and status. Still others argue that society produces crime, and so crime can be reduced or eliminated only by changing the organization of society.Most sociologist believe this theory and some believe other social factors are also encouraged him for committing crimes.Recent trends of Crime -1-Changing patterns of traditional crimes- Some time ago we observe only crimes of robbery, dacoit, murder etc . But now we see crimes related to caste, religions and regionalism are at increasing rate. The new category of crimes called white collar crimes done by big reputed officials and ministers are common in society. Now no file can be forwarded to other tables till you pay some commission (bribe) to concerned person. The crimes related to system have volumes to describe. A Violence can be seen from domestic field to international terrorism. Terrorism is also spreading in form of organized and planned way. The quantity of crimes related to child abusing have separate pathetic situation. At least 500,000 children are physically abused in the U.S. each year; many more are emotionally abused and neglected. In India and other developing countries child exploitation is common phenomenon which can be seen in every small hotel, motel and shop..examples of deviant behaviour-Crimes related to propertyCrimes related to person/women/children/deprived classesCrimes related to sexCrimes related to animalsCrimes related to terrorismCrimes related to violenceCrimes related to systemWhite collar crimes like bribe and corruption
Example of simple and complex behavior?
Deviant behavioursThere is set of social features ,which provided to man to regulate his behavior according to that set of norms and values. Some of them in society fail to conform to these norms. Failure to conform to the traditional norms of the society is deviant behavior .According to Parsons ,there are two types of deviant behavior.A- firstly, he defines ,it as "motivated tendency for an actor to behave in a contravention of one or more institutionalized normative pattern."B- Secondly he defines it as "the tendency on the part of one or more of the component actors to behave in such a way to disturb the equilibrium .of interactive process,"Various violence ,crimes and oppositions are examples of deviant behavior. This deviant behavior brings tensions, disorganization ,conflicts and presents new challenges in social system.Deviant behavior is term of comparative condition. In all societies it occurred in some extent. There is no society which is free from any deviant behavior. The meaning of normative system is changing according to need of society. There was time when disobeying the rules of caste was considered as deviant behavior, but now in age of equalization norms of caste are valueless .In short purposely violation of any law which exist in valuable place in society, called deviant behavior.Crime and violence are clear and transparent examples of deviant behavior. In present plural society , the role of religion ,community ,caste, language, are important and any opposite or contradictory action against these also comes in category of deviant behavior. The Reason behind it is a democratic system ,where all faiths and religions are well respected.Throughout history, the most important aspects of the democratic way of life have been the principles of individual equality and freedom. Accordingly, citizens in a democracy should be entitled to equal protection of their persons, possessions, and rights; have equal opportunity to pursue their lives and careers; and have equal rights of political participation. In addition, the people should enjoy freedom from undue interference and domination by government. They should be free, within the framework of the law, to believe, behave, and express themselves as they wish. Democratic societies seek to guarantee their citizens certain freedoms, including freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of speech. Ideally, citizens should also be guaranteed freedom of association and of assembly, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, and the freedom to work and live where and how they choose.Five-year plan is a programme to increase the economic and social development of a country over a five-year period. Many countries have had such plans drawn up by their governments. Examples include China and India. The plan details how much the government intends to spend on the various parts of the economy, particularly in those areas that will help the country to industrialize and develop. For example, a plan may include ideas for new roads, railways, airports, and seaports and for spending on such items as schools, universities, and hospitals. Individual countries' plans vary in scope and detail. Many are flexible and will be adjusted during the five-year period to reflect changes in international economic conditions.On considering this much arrangement ,still disputes and contraventions are resting in brains of people of various communities.A dispute or Contestation does not mean any necessary conflict. This situation has some possibility to reach at some agreement. With the organized systemically efforts to eradicate the dispute ,they want to show their unity and strength through processions ,this is called Contestation situation.Variou form of Contestation-1-Religious Contestation-Every where we observe diddrent faith and religions . In Europe Protestant and Catholic religions and their Contestation are common between two. Same way Gulf countries have Shiya and Sunni disputes. In India there are all types of religions .The history says Babri Masjid is built on Ram temple and Hindu and Muslims fight for this.India is declared as secular country but the ratio of extremists is increasing day by day.2-Racial Contestation- Racism is the belief that human beings can be divided into races and that members of some races are inferior to members of other races. Usually, this attitude also involves the belief that one's own race is superior to other races. People who believe in or practise racism are called racists. They claim that members of their own race are mentally, physically, morally, or culturally superior to those of other races. Because racists assume they are superior, they believe they deserve special rights and privileges.Racism is widespread and has caused major problems, even though no scientific proof supports racist claims. Claims of racial superiority and inferiority have been used to justify discrimination,3-caste conflict- India's Caste System has rarely matched the one outlined above. Through the centuries, however, the actual system became increasingly rigid and elaborate. Many attempts have been made to eliminate the system, but all have failed. India's 1950 constitution outlaws untouchability and grants equal status to all peoples. But laws and modern urban life have weakened the system only somewhat. Caste prejudice remains an important factor interfering with India's social integration and economic progress.4-Regional tension- The concept of regionalism is also reason of Contestation. At political level it works to hold maximum seats in administration. For this feature the party system has been the rise of several regional parties that are powerful in the particular states to which they belong. The popularity of these parties is largely due to the fact that they appeal to regional (cultural or linguistic) sentiments. In short they excite the opponents to form such other regional parties.5-Linguistic Contestation- In a linguistic sense, the term language is refers to those areas where most people speak that as their native language. For example Arabs have their language Arabic. This linguistic definition differs from the political one because some Arab countries include large areas populated by non-Arabs, and some non-Arab countries have significant Arab minorities. In India there are always conflictive arguments on northern and southern languages .Tamil, Telgu, Assam have shown Linguistic Contestation at various times.CrimeCrime is a term that refers to misconduct forbidden by law. Murder, called homicide--is a crime in all countries. Other crimes include stealing a car, resisting arrest, possessing or selling illegal drugs, appearing nude on a public street, driving while under the influence of alcohol, and robbing a bank.The list of acts considered crimes is constantly changing. For example, people are now no longer charged with witchcraft, though many were accused of that crime during the 1600's and 1700's. Today, it is becoming a serious crime to pollute the air and water. Pollution caused few problems and received little attention in pre industrial times.From a legal standpoint, a crime is a violation of the criminal law. Such law deals with actions considered harmful to society. On the other hand, most harmful acts causing injury to another person are violations of the civil law. Some overlapping occurs in this classification. For example, murder and rape are committed against individuals, but the law considers them crimes because they threaten society. For this reason, a crime is regarded as an offence against the state.An act is viewed as a crime if enough evidence exists to make a police officer, a prosecutor, or a judge believe that a violation of criminal law has taken place. However, the law does not consider accused people to be criminals unless a judge or jury finds them guilty. A criminal may be imprisoned or receive some other punishment, according to the laws of the community in which the crime was committed or the trial was held.A person who commits any crime is called a criminal. But the term is sometimes used only for a person who commits such a serious crime as murder or robbery. At other times, the term refers only to habitual criminals.The study of criminal behavior is called criminology, and experts in this field are called criminologists. Criminologists study crime and criminals for various reasons. They may try to determine where, when, and why different types of crime occur. Criminologists also seek the relationships between criminals and the victims, as well as the most effective ways to prevent crime.Definition and Features of Crime-1. "A crime is any act which the group regards as sufficiently menacing to warrant a decisive group reaction to condemn and restrain the offender of such act"( Barnes & Teeters, New horizons in criminology.)2. According to Elliot and Merrill ,"Crime may be defined as anti-social behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties. (Social Disorgnization,pp.542-543)3. R.Garofelo accordingly" A violation of prevalent sentiments of pity and probity."(Criminology ,p59)4. In words of Caldwell, "Crime is the violation of set of values acceptable to organized society at a certain time and in a given place." (Criminology.p.4)5. In words of Redcliff Brown, "A violation of usage which gives rise to the exercise of penal sanction."(Quoted by Sutherland ,Principles of Criminology ,p15)6. Haikerwal "From the social point of view crime implies such behavior of the individual as interferes with the order of human relationships which society regards as primary condition of its existence." ,(Economic and Social Aspects of Crime in India 1927, p27)On the basis of above definitions, we can conclude following features of crime-1- crime is an act treated as anti-social behavior.2- This act is always against the interest of community.3- It is behavior which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties of money and physical imprisonment .4- There should be always involvement of criminal intention.5- The act which harms to man, group or state is counted as crime.6- There is difference between crime and tort. Disobeying of any religious ritual is called tort , not crime.Classification of Crime and Criminals;Crimes may be classified in various ways. For example, they sometimes are grouped according to the seriousness of the offence. For statistical purposes, many governments divide crimes into offences against people, against property, and against public order or public morality. Some social scientists classify crimes according to the motives of the offenders. Such crimes might include economic crimes, political crimes, and crimes of passion. Other important kinds of crime include organized crime and white-collar crime.Sutherland has divided crime into two parts.A- Misdemeanors or Average crime means robbery ,manhandle, consume alcohol etc. there is no harsh punishment for such acts. Some warnings, slight penalty, or keeping on probation are some forms of punishment for it.B- Felonies or Heinous Crimes-Murder, rape, dacoit, kidnap violence, looting etc are treated as very heinous crimes. The life imprisonment ,death sentence, are various forms of punishing the criminalHayes has given three type of crimes.A-Crime against order like disturbing and looting public place, indecent behavior ,involvement in riots,and disobeying the rules of public authority.B-Crime against Property-like robbery, cheating, smuggling, bankruptcy ,insolvency etc.c-Crime against individual - murder ,rape ,attach, defamation etc.Bonger says there are four types of crimes. They are economic, political. sex and revengeful crimes.Lambreso says there are five important types of criminals-A-criminals by birth-People commit crime due to defective personality of heredity B -psychiatric criminals-who can not distinguished the nature of the things of right and wrong. C-Excited criminals-who excited very fast and getting Excited by others commit crime. D- Casual criminals-Due to some causality they commit crime. E-Habitual criminals, these are known as occupational criminals. Such criminals organized and in planned way they commit crime. Organized crime consists of large-scale activities by groups of gangsters or racketeers. Such groups are often called the crime syndicate or the underworld. Organized crime specializes in providing illegal goods and services. Its activities include gambling, prostitution, the illegal sale of drugs, and loan-sharking (lending money at extremely high rates of interest). Many of these activities are often called victimless crimes because both the buyer and the seller take part in them willingly.Sutherland has described two types of economic crimes namely lower class criminals, who have very low economic and social status and due to lack of education they commit crimes. other category is called White-collar crimes. It originally included only criminal acts committed by business and professional people while earning their living. The term referred to such crimes as Stock Market swindles and other kinds of fraud. Today, the term covers such acts as cheating in the payment of taxes--which may or may not be done in connection with one's business. It may apply to petty thefts by employees, as well as to large-scale stock market swindles. It could also include a garage owner's charging for a car repair that was not made, or a dentist's charging a patient for services that were not performed. A bribery and corruption are also such crimes.Problem of crime inIndia-Like other countries India is facing crimes committed through computers. The increasing use of computers has created new opportunities for white-collar crime. Computer crimes are difficult to detect but easy to accomplish once a criminal learns the code or password to activate the system. Thus, automatic bank tellers increase the possibility of fraud or theft from banks. Computer access by bank employees creates additional opportunities for diversification .This is latest type of crime in India.The other crime is of political nature. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political crime has become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aeroplane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists. For example, security at airports, embassies, and other potential targets has been increased, and specially trained law enforcement or military units have been formed to combat terrorism.There is difference in nature of criminals of west and east. In western countries mostly crimes committed for economic reason as well as for revengeful mentality. But in India it is not so common. In India Crimes are often divided between acts that most people would consider evil and acts that lawmakers decide should be regulated in the interest of the community. The first group includes such major crimes as arson, assault, burglary, kidnapping, murder, rape, robbery, and theft. The second group of crimes includes violations of income tax laws, liquor licensing regulations, pure food and drug laws, and traffic laws.In India there are other type of common crimes like land related crime and religion related crimes, de to industrialization ,rural population migrated in towns and till they get house ,job or every thing they involve themselves in pity crimes. Smuggling, bribery ,kidnapping, asking money for freeing the person are other crimes in society. The big names of some crimes in India are Hawala Scandal, Bribery of Jharkhand party Scandal, Sukhram Scandal, urea Scandal, Bihar's Chara Ghotala Scandal, Telgi Stamp paper Scandal, Jain charbi Scandal etc. Now a days big bureaucrats and political leaders are involving in sex crimes.Some time back it was understood that only low class people committed crimes but now even big dignitaries are also not trust worthy. Due to Television and materialization children have great lust for money and they are also in habit of stealing things and money. The role of moral ethics are disappearing from society. A domestic violence is a story of every home. The dowry deaths crimes are common in rich families also. The involvement of women in crimes is not rare thing.Factors of crime-Biological factors-. Many studies have sought to explain crime. Most of them compare habitual criminals with people who have not been convicted of crimes to try to find important differences between the two groups.Since the late 1800's, for example, researchers trained in the biological sciences have searched for physical differences. Such studies involve differences in body type, the pattern of brain waves, and the formation of genes. Lambroso and Charles Goring said that due to defective traits of body they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Other sociologists believe that due to heredity of criminals their offspring also do such acts.In compare to old young people inclined more towards acts of crime. Quarreling nature ,tension ,fraustration,etc are some biological factors of crime. Although none of these studies has proved that criminals have any physical traits that make them different from other people.2-Psychological factors-Research by psychiatrists and psychologists stresses personality differences resulting from experiences in childhood or later. This research shows that many people who became criminals were neglected by their parents or were given harsh or uncertain discipline. Such treatment left them insecure and demanding in their relations with others. Their own wants made them ignore the needs or rights of others. But researchers have had difficulty making a direct connection between emotional needs and crime because many people with emotional problems find acceptable ways of solving them.(CD of World book Millennium 2000)3-Economic factors-Due to industrialization and urbanization, the needs of people are at increasing rate. There is limited sources for satisfying unlimited needs. In many countries, most crimes are committed by boys and young men. They are particularly likely to commit burglaries, car thefts, and robberies .Modernization has changed the concept of standard of living which was simple living and high thinking .Now it isconverted in to high living and simple thinking.4-Social factors-For many young city-dwellers, the excitement of the streets provides the principal escape from boredom and seemingly unsolvable problems. These streets are also the scene of much vice and crime--drugs use and sale, gambling, prostitution, public drunkenness, and acts of violence. Law enforcement in the inner city is difficult, partly because too few police officers patrol the neighborhoods. In addition, many of the people fear the police and refuse to cooperate with them. .(CD of World book Millennium 2000)5-Political factors-political leader also train people for committing crimes. They are paid for it. Booth capturing ,killing the innocents ,murdering the other party candidates and honest people who do not pay money from government treasury, creating terror for voting system are so many other forms of crimes.Political factors have become an increasingly serious criminal activity. It includes acts of terrorism against innocent people and assassinations of leading political figures throughout the world. Unlike many criminals who seek money or personal gain through crime, most terrorists and assassins commit crimes to show support for a political cause. Since the early 1970's, political crimes such as aero plane hijackings, assassinations, bombings, and the taking of hostages have become more frequent. As a result, governments all over the world have taken steps to protect against terrorists.6-Defective Punishment system -If person is harshly penalized for ordinary acts ,it makes him serious criminal in future. Our legal system too is loosely knitted . On the basis of false evidence any person can be punished by law. Such person does not have faith in laws so they violate the same to punish the others.Schools of Crime-Pre classical school-According to this school any crime is committed due to some involvement of any super natural power. There was limited knowledge of people in old primitive societies. When they did not find any reason of act of violating rules of society they said it is because of some shadow of ghost or super natural spirit. A person himself did not know what type of act he is doing?This theory is not acceptable by others as it is based on imagination of people.Classical theory-Ben-them is supporter of this theory. According to him person's behavior is controlled by feeling of pain and pleasure. When person commit crime the quantity of pleasure is higher than the pain he takes for it. There fore 'Pleasure related Psychology' is main factor of crime.This theory does not believe in existence of super natural power, rather it gives importance to' Free will ' of individual .This is reason why Back-aria has given stress on severe punishment for criminals ,so that the pain of punishment could torture him more, than pleasure of committing crime.Beccaria and his followers protested at the severe punishments that were common for criminals at that time. They argued that the only purpose of punishment should be to prevent future crime. Beccaria assumed that criminals had free will and that pleasure and pain determined their actions. He believed crime could be prevented by the certainty and speed of punishment, rather than its severity. According to Beccaria, everyone who violated a specific law should receive the same punishment, regardless of age, sex, wealth, or social position. In modified form, the principles of the classical school are the basis of criminal law today in many nations.This theory is not acceptable by others as it has over looked the social factor of the same. There are so many psychological factors of harassment, emotional blackmailing ,frustrations etc, which have not given enough attention.Geographical School.-this school believes in geographical factors of crime like geographical condition and climatic conditions . Quetlete says in hot climatic conditions people commit more crimes against person while in cold conditions he commits against property. There are other thinkers like Gery and Durkheim who have opinion of committing crimes in favor of environmental factors. Durkheim says during summer season people commit more suicides.This theory is also criticized by many.because all people live in same geographical conditions do not commit crimes. More over due to technological factors ,people have controlled the geographical conditions also.Economic School-Angles and Karl Marx supports this theory of economic facrors. When economic disparity increases in society ,the ratio of tension also increases in large group of people. For reducing it they involve in crimes.As soon as relations among the means of productions improves ,the ratio of crimes also decreases.This theory is also one sided ,giving more importance to welth than man.Poverty does not encourage all men to commit crimes. Some say weaker section vave more faith in rules and laws.Italian or Typological school. The positive school of criminology, also known as the Italian school, developed during the late 1800's. In general, this school shifted the emphasis of criminology from crime itself to the study of criminals and the possible causes of their actions. The positivists believed criminal behavior resulted from conditions beyond the control of the criminal.An Italian doctor named Cesare Lombroso was the most important leader of the positive school. He studied many criminals and concluded that certain physical traits made them different from other people. His ideas have been proved false, but his scientific approach to crime laid the basis for modern criminology.Lambroso , Gerri fellow and Charles Goring said that due to defective physical traits of body or physically challenged / handicap ness lead them towards crime. Due to this they want to attract attention of others, so they commit crime. Gerri fellow gives more importance to mental traits than physical. He said if person does not have mercy and honesty in his character from birth ,he never hesitate to commit crimes.This is also unscientific theory .By birth no one is criminal, it is socio cultural circumstances which compelled him towards crimes. If birth is responsible for crimes than there is no hope for any improvement in his behavior and no reformatory program can be effective for them. Although through reformatory programs he can be once again molded in shape of sound citizen.Psychoanalytical school-The supporters of this theory are Sigmund Friaud ,Edler and Henery Godard .according to them due to suppressed feelings of person , he commits crime. There are so many achievements and failures in life. When he faces failures of life he feels emotionally tensed. Sometimes due to this tension, he feels insecure and frustrated .To get rid from all such negativity he commit crime. The low standard of intelligence is also inclined him to commit crime.But critics say it is not necessary that all people of low intelligence commit crimes.In every society all type of people reside,this does not mean that peole of low level of intelligence are criminals. More ever there are so many other sociological factors which are responsible for such acts.Sociological School. According to Sutherland crime is also learned behavior of man. Anti social contacts make him criminal. How person can become criminal ,it depends on four situations .A-Age B-Repetitions C- Duration D- speedy contact . These four things can be analyzed with the help of an example. The person who in younger age comes in contact of criminals,(Age) and he sees them again and again (Repetition) and live together for long duration (Duration) and he maintains such friendship and imitate their behavior, such person has all qualities of criminal. There fore the seed of crimes are exist in structure of society.During the 1900's, criminologists have proposed a wide variety of theories about crime. Edwin H. Sutherland, an American criminologist, developed the theory of differential association. It states that all criminal behavior is learned through association with criminals or people with unfavorable attitudes toward the law. Other criminologists believe the structure of society leads some people to choose criminal methods to achieve such socially approved goals as wealth and status. Still others argue that society produces crime, and so crime can be reduced or eliminated only by changing the organization of society.Most sociologist believe this theory and some believe other social factors are also encouraged him for committing crimes.Recent trends of Crime -1-Changing patterns of traditional crimes- Some time ago we observe only crimes of robbery, dacoit, murder etc . But now we see crimes related to caste, religions and regionalism are at increasing rate. The new category of crimes called white collar crimes done by big reputed officials and ministers are common in society. Now no file can be forwarded to other tables till you pay some commission (bribe) to concerned person. The crimes related to system have volumes to describe. A Violence can be seen from domestic field to international terrorism. Terrorism is also spreading in form of organized and planned way. The quantity of crimes related to child abusing have separate pathetic situation. At least 500,000 children are physically abused in the U.S. each year; many more are emotionally abused and neglected. In India and other developing countries child exploitation is common phenomenon which can be seen in every small hotel, motel and shop..examples of deviant behaviour-Crimes related to propertyCrimes related to person/women/children/deprived classesCrimes related to sexCrimes related to animalsCrimes related to terrorismCrimes related to violenceCrimes related to systemWhite collar crimes like bribe and corruption
