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The usual device is a sextant, which measures the altitude (angle above the horizon) of stars or the Sun crossing the meridian (i.e. due south). The latitude can then be calcuated after looking up the declination of the object in tables, for example in the Nautical Almanac.

A star (or the Sun) on the (celestial) equator has an altitude of 90 minus the latitude, so in general a star's altitude is 90 - latitude + declination, when it is due south. The ship's latitude is therefore 90 - altitude + declination.

The distance from the equator in nautical miles is the latitude (in degrees) times 60.

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Q: What is the name for a piece of equipment that measures a ships distance from the equator?
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