The terminology would typically reference a device such as a power supply, charger, diverter or transformer. The Input Voltage is the voltage supplied to the device to make it work. The Output Voltage is what the device supplies to an application.
For example, a power supply for a laptop might convert 120 VAC to a voltage like 19.5 volts (A Sony Laptop) for charging a laptop battery.
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There is (240 / 1344) = 179 milli volts per turn. The output voltage is 50 volts, so 50 / .179 = 280 turns on the secondary.
7812 is not a transistor. It is a three lead voltage regulator integrated circuit. Its maximum input voltage should be near 35 volts. The minimum input voltage should be near 14 volts. The output will be 12 volts.
In this case, the peak voltage, which is half the peak to peak voltage, is 100 volts. Additionally, the half-wave rectifier will only provide an output for half the input cycle. In the case of a full wave rectifier, the RMS output voltage would be about 0.707 times the value of the peak voltage (100 volts), which would be about 70.7 volts. But with the output operating only half the time (because of the half wave rectification), the average output voltage will be half the 70.7 volts, or about 35.35 volts RMS.
It depends on the shunt feedback resistor on the op-amp, for example with a 10k feedback resistor connecting the output to the inverting input, 1 mA input current gives 10 volts signal output. The input terminal stays near zero voltage because of the high open-loop gain of the op-amp, so the inverting input is termed a 'virtual earth'.
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