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It looks like the letter N which is the symbol for nought and nothing can't be subtracted from anything because it remains the same.
This is the Identity Property so it is the the Additive Identity and Multiplicative Identity.
The ratio of 31 to 13 can be expressed as 31:13. To simplify, you can divide both numbers by their greatest common divisor, which is 1 in this case, so the ratio remains 31:13. This indicates that for every 31 units of one quantity, there are 13 units of another.
That depends what assumptions you make about what the 5 grams of matter is made of.
An exponential decay function describes a process where a quantity decreases at a rate proportional to its current value, leading to a consistent halving time. This means that after each fixed interval, the quantity reduces to half of its previous amount. For example, in radioactive decay, the halving time remains constant regardless of how much of the substance is left, illustrating the characteristic nature of exponential decay. Overall, it models many real-world phenomena where resources diminish over time.