This is a condition that should not happen under normal conditions. In North America the smallest home breaker is 15 amps. If a fault current is higher that the breaker setting the breaker will trip.
The only way the breaker could have tripped is, if when screwing the bulb out, the feed wires feeding the light socket turned and shorted out against each other.
Turn the power feed off and thoroughly check the feed wires. Make sure that the insulation is good all the way to the terminal points.
As a side note, if the circuit that the fixture is connected to is fully loaded to say 13 amps it would only take an additional 2 amps to trip the breaker. If the bulb flashed when you started turning the bulb out, this is most likely what happened.
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Yes, using an incompatible bulb in a lamp can cause the breaker to trip. Different bulbs have different power requirements, and an incompatible bulb could draw too much power, causing the breaker to kick in order to prevent overheating or fire hazard. It's recommended to always use the proper type and wattage of bulb recommended by the manufacturer.
When a shunt trip occurs, the breaker typically goes to the "trip" position, which indicates that the circuit has been interrupted and the contacts are open. This allows for quick identification of the issue and isolation of the circuit for safety reasons.
No, when a shunt trip breaker trips, it opens the circuit and disconnects the voltage supply to the protected circuit.
Yes, but you need a power source, for the shunt trip coil voltage, in the circuit.
A GFCI device in a breaker is intended to trip the breaker open when a ground fault is sensed in the circuit that the breaker is protecting.