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spinning in smaller orbits as they make the bigger revolutution

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Q: In what ways did Copernicus agree with hipparchus and ptolemy?
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What did hipparchus do?

Little is known of Hipparchus's life, but he is known to have been born in Nicaea in Bithynia. Only one work by Hipparchus has survived, and this is certainly not one of his major works. Most of the information which we have about the work of Hipparchus comes from Ptolemy.Even if he did not invent it, Hipparchus is the first person whose systematic use of trigonometry we have documentary evidence. Hipparchus produced a table of chords, an early example of a trigonometric table. He did this by using the supplementary angle theorem, half angle formulas, and linear interpolation. Hipparchus was not only the founder of trigonometry but also the man who transformed Greek astronomy from a purely theoretical into a practical predictive science. He also introduced the division of a circle into 360 degrees into Greece.Hipparchus calculated the length of the year to within 6.5 minutes and discovered the precession of the equinoxes. We believe that Hipparchus's star catalogue contained about 850 stars, probably not listed in a systematic coordinate system but using various different ways to designate the position of a star.The work we have of his, Commentary on Aratus and Eudoxus, was written in 3 books as a commentary on 3 different writings. First, there was a treatise by Eudoxus now lost in which he named and described the constellations. Second, Aratus wrote a poem called which was based on the treatise by Eudoxus and proved to be a work of great popularity. This poem has survived and we have its text. Third, there was commentary on Aratus by Attalus of Rhodes, written shortly before the time of Hipparchus.The 3 books on which Hipparchus was writing a commentary contained no mathematical astronomy. However towards the end of the second book, continuing through the whole of the third book, Hipparchus gives his own account of the rising and setting of the constellations. Towards the end of the third book, Hipparchus gives a list of bright stars always visible for the purpose of enabling the time at night to be accurately determined. It is thought that this work by Hipparchus was done near the end of his career.Hipparchus also made a careful study of the motion of the moon. In calculating the distance of the moon, Hipparchus not only made excellent use of both mathematical techniques and observational techniques, but he also gave a range of values within which be calculated that the true distance must lie. He estimated that eclipses have a period of 126007 days. Hipparchus's calculations led him to a value for the distance to the moon of between 59 and 67 earth radii, quite remarkable in that the correct distance is 60 earth radii.Hipparchus not only gave observational data for the moon which enabled him to compute accurately the various periods, but he developed a theoretical model of the motion of the moon based on epicycles. He showed that his model did not agree totally with observations, but it seems to be Ptolemy who was the first to correct the model to take these discrepancies into account. Hipparchus was also able to give an epicycle model for the motion of the sun, but he did not attempt to give an epicycle model for the motion of the planets.


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How were Copernicus' and Kepler's theories about the movement of the planets similar How were they different?

Copernicus started the ball rolling with a new theory explaining how the planets move, using circles and epicycles as Ptolemy had done, but with the Sun assumed to be at the centre. He claimed that the new theory was simpler than Ptolemy's theory, which was later found to be not actually the case. But Copernicus's theory was used to predict the positions of the planets. Later Tycho Brahe found ways of making accurate measurements of the planets' positions, and discovered small errors in predictions that were based on Copernicus's theory. Kepler retained the idea that the Sun is at the centre, but used Tycho's measurements to research a new detailed theory of the planets' orbits. After long and arduous studies he discovered that the orbits are elliptical, and published three laws of planetary motion which were a huge step forward in scientific knowledge. Newton made further discoveries that explained how elliptical orbits are produced by the Sun's gravity. He said he had stood on the shoulders of giants, and Kepler must have been at the front of his mind. Kepler's achievement is enormous because the difference between an ellipse of the type that the planets move in and a circle with the Sun offset from the centre - as predicted by the old theory with epicycles - is extremely small.


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In 1616, the church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. While remaining publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then in 1932, after he had published " Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", Galileo stood before the court under the threat of torture. So he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession that stated that he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false.


What is wrong with the theory put fourth by Copernicus based on what you know today?

A physical theory is as good as the results it produces when compared to observations of reality. Judged on that basis the early models of the solar system were not bad, and because of that the Ptolemaic system lasted 1400 years. Copernicus produced a new model, published in 1543, which in many ways was similar to Ptolemy's in the use of circles and epicycles, but it differed in placing the Sun at the centre, instead of the Earth as in Ptolemy's model from ancient times. The catholic church was not violently opposed to new ideas and theories, including the Copernican model of the solar system, until Galileo began promoting it as the absolute truth instead of treating it as just a scientific theory as the church allowed, and that caused a row. Eventually another model was produced by Kepler which retained the idea of having the Sun at the centre, but used an entirely new idea for the planets' orbits, which he modelled as ellipses. He was able to show that the elliptical orbits produced a better 'fit' to recent measured data taken with the latest equipment designed by Tycho Brahe with a new level of accuracy. Kepler's model was later demonstrated as superior because it was also consistent with theoretical discoveries: Isaac Newton showed that an object must move in an elliptical orbit under the force of gravity, which he described in another new theory. So it would be incorrect to say that the models of Ptolemy and Copernicus were 'wrong', it's just that they were less accurate than the Kepler model. In fact planetariums have always used a mechanism that is still based on the Ptolemaic system because it is mechanically more convenient with the Earth at the centre (except that modern ones are computerised and can use any model).