Correlation Coefficient.
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There is no such term. The regression (or correlation) coefficient changes as the sample size increases - towards its "true" value. There is no measure of association that is independent of sample size.
Correlation is a measure of association between two variables and the variables are not designated as dependent or independent. Simple regression is used to examine the relationship between one dependent and one independent variable. It goes beyond correlation by adding prediction capabilities.
They both measure a linear relationship between two variables.
There is none. If an accurate measure was possible then statistical techniques would not be required. A maximum likelihood estimate is probably better than other statistical estimates.
From Laerd Statistics:The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson correlation coefficient for short) is a measure of the strength of a linear association between two variables and is denoted by r. Basically, a Pearson product-moment correlation attempts to draw a line of best fit through the data of two variables, and the Pearson correlation coefficient, r, indicates how far away all these data points are to this line of best fit (how well the data points fit this new model/line of best fit).