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Correlation Coefficient.
There is no such term. The regression (or correlation) coefficient changes as the sample size increases - towards its "true" value. There is no measure of association that is independent of sample size.
Correlation is a measure of association between two variables and the variables are not designated as dependent or independent. Simple regression is used to examine the relationship between one dependent and one independent variable. It goes beyond correlation by adding prediction capabilities.
They both measure a linear relationship between two variables.
Independent variables are those that you change in an experiment. Dependent variables are the ones that you measure in an experiment. Dependent variables are influenced by the independent variables that you change, so they are dependent upon the independent variable. Generally, experiments should have only one independent variable.