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Although Descartes is generally credited with inventing analytical geometry, several aspects had been used by the Greek mathematicians Menaechmus (4th century BC) and Apollonius of Perga (3rd century BC). Much later (11th century), the Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam, used methods which modern mathematicians consider akin to analytical geometry. In 1637 Rene Descartes published his work on the topic but it was incomplete and was in French. It took another decade or so before it was translated into Latin and some of the gaps filled that Descartes' ideas took off.
It seems that the Ancient Greeks knew about exponentiation already. The notation we currently used, on the other hand, was introduced by Descartes, in the 17th century.
Descartes did not invent polynomials.
6th century BC
Philosophically, Descartes was concerned with the existence of reality.