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The word canonical means "by a general law, rule, principle or criterion". When the Hamiltonian operator is applied to the (average momentum) wave function it gives quantized values. In this sense the Hamilton equations gives the Schrodinger equation discreet values by a general law.
Differential Calculus is to take the derivative of the function. It is important as it can be applied and supports other branches of science. For ex, If you have a velocity function, you can get its acceleration function by taking its derivative, same relationship as well with area and volume formulas.
A differential is the result gained when mathematical differentiation is applied to a function. Differentiation in maths is the function which finds the gradient of a function in terms of x. Differentiation in biology is the specialisation of unspecialised cells such as stem cells into active cells.
Linear equations, if they have a solution, can be solved analytically. On the other hand, it may not always be possible to find a solution to nonlinear equations. This is where you use various numerical methods (eg Newton-Raphson) to work from one approximate numerical solution to a better solution. This iterative procedure, if properly applied, gives accurate numerical solutions to nonlinear equations. But as mentioned above, they are not arrived at analytically.
Vertices in quadratic equations can be used to determine the highest price to sell a product before losing money again.