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The answer depends on what group or field the function is defined on. In the complex plane, the range is the complex plane. If the domain is all real numbers and the radical is an odd root (cube root, fifth root etc), the range is the real numbers. Otherwise, it is the complex plane. If the domain is non-negative real numbers, the range is also the real numbers.
The absolute value of a number is positive, so the range is always a positive real number. You are correct. The domain, that is the value before you take the absolute value, is all real numbers, but the range is always positive.
There are infinitely many operations. Any rule that takes one or more real numbers as input and outputs one or more real numbers is an operation involving real numbers. So addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, doubling, cube-rooting, trigonometric functions, multiplying a real vector by a matrix of the appropriate size, are all examples.
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The answer depends on the domain. If the domain is non-negative real numbers, then the range is the whole of the real numbers. If the domain is the whole of the real numbers (or the complex plane) , the range is the complex plane.